Lecture 15: The Classical Moment: the architectural sculpture of the Parthenon.

The Parthenon, or Temple of Athena Parthenos, on the Akropolis, Athens.

The Parthenon, or Temple of Athena Parthenos, was built throughout of Pentelic marble on the south central side of the Akropolis. Begun in 447 BC, it was structurally complete by 438 BC when it was dedicated at the Panathenaic festival: by 432 BC its pedimental sculptures were also in place.

Ground plan of the Parthenon, showing sculptural programme.

Built externally in the Doric order, the temple possessed a peripteral colonnade of 8 x 17 columns. Architectural sculpture was located in the east and west pediments and in 92 exterior metopes. Additionally, a continuous Ionic frieze carried sculptural decoration around the exterior of the cella building. The sculptor responsible for the design of the architectural sculpture, and also for the creation of the chryselephantine cult-statue of Athena, was Pheidias. Today the surviving architectural sculptures are divided between the Akropolis Museum, the British Museum and the Louvre. The metopes, sculpted in high relief, were created between circa 447-442 BC, the frieze in lower relief was sculpted circa 442-438 BC, while the free-standing figures of the pediments can be dated 438-432 BC. Stylistic development is, therefore, visible in these different sculptural elements.

Parthenon south metope XXX showing a fight between a Lapith and Centaur, height: 1.3m. London, British Museum.

The subjects chosen for metopes were:

East (14 metopes): Gigantomachy/Battle of Gods and Giants.

West (14 metopes): Amazonomachy/Battle of Greeks and Amazons

North (32 metopes): Sack of Troy on the eastern and western ends, with what may be interpreted as the Olympian gods witnessing events on the central panels. 

South (32 metopes): Centauromachy/Battle of Lapiths (Northern Greeks) and centaurs on the eastern and western ends, with an unidentified subject occupying the central panels.

Like the sculpted themes incorporated into the chryselephantine cult-statue of Athena, the same themes of Centauromachy, Amazonomachy and Gigantomachy are found in the metopes, emphasising the triumph of the civilised over the uncivilised and finding a fitting place in a monument offered as a thanksgiving to Athena for victory over the Persians and designed also to celebrate Athens' imperial power.

Traces of paint preserved on the metopes indicate that the figures were set against a red background. Notice in the metopes the lingering influence of the Early Classical style in elements such as the heavy draperies.

The subjects of the Parthenon frieze in schematic plan.

Though the correct interpretation of the Parthenon frieze is still hotly debated by Classical scholars, it is agreed that most of the frieze depicts a procession of some kind. This procession begins at the southwest corner of the cella and makes its way along the west end of the building: two columns of figures then move simultaneously along the north and south sides of the cella and onto the east front, where a gathering of the gods flanks a central scene located over the entrance to the temple.

The horsemen prepare, north side Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. London, British Museum.

Approximately half of the frieze (the west side and the west ends of the north and south sides) is occupied with horsemen. There we see horsemen preparing to join the procession. From traces of paint preserved on the frieze, we know that the figures were set against a blue background. Additional paint and metal attachments (such as wreaths, reins and spears), now lost, would further have enlivened the composition.

The mounted horsemen process, north side Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. Athens, Akropolis Museum.

The carefully crafted composition avoids boring repetition in the figures of the cavalcade by employing devices such as variation in the spacing of the horses and riders, the pace at which they ride, the degree to which the figures overlap, and the clothes the riders wear.

When compared to metope figures, stylistic developments are evident, such as the thinner drapery folds which help to model the bodies beneath and give an effective sense of their movement.

The hydria bearers, north side Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. Athens, Akropolis Museum.

Ahead of the mounted horsemen in the procession come the chariots, preceded by figures of elders, musicians (north side), tablet and tray bearers (south side), and hydria and tray bearers (north side).

Sacrificial victims, north side Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. Athens, Akropolis Museum.

At the east end of the long north and south sides of the frieze the sacrificial animals (cows and sheep) are led in procession.

The Eponymous Heroes, east side Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. Plaster cast in the Louvre of badly damaged original in British Museum.

Finally the long procession turns from the north and south sides of the cella onto the east front. Framing the corners of the east front, maidens - some of whom carry ritual equipment such as oinochoai and phialai (libation vessels) - are called to order by procession 'marshals'. Beyond them, forming the transition from the human to the divine sphere, are ten male figures usually identified as the Eponymous Heroes, after whom the ten Athenian tribes of the Kleisthenic democracy were named.

Poseidon, Apollo and Artemis seated on the east side of the Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. Athens, Akropolis Museum.

The Olympian gods, unlike the other figures in the frieze, are seated. They are, therefore, depicted on a larger scale than the other figures, as befits their divine status. Here Poseidon, originally holding a trident, converses with the youthful Apollo who is seated next to his twin Artemis: note the clinging draperies characteristic of the later fifth century and, in the slipping garments of the goddess, the gradual move towards divesting the female form of clothing.

Bearded male and child holding a piece of folded cloth in the central scene on the east side of the Parthenon frieze, height: 1.06m. London, British Museum.

Situated centrally between the seated gods and located in pride of place over the entrance to the cella are five figures: a bearded man and child, and a woman with two girls who carry stools on their heads. In the traditional interpretation of the frieze the long procession, witnessed by the gods, is that conducted in honour of the Panathenaic festival, and the figures of the central section of the east frieze are deemed to be the Archon Basileus and a child (whose gender is disputed by scholars) holding the newly woven peplos which was brought in the procession to clothe the cult statue of Athena Polias (housed in the Old Temple of Athena and subsequently in the Erechtheion) on the Akropolis. The woman is then thought to be the wife of the Archon Basileus, receiving ritual equipment from the two girls.

This interpretation of the frieze is by no means, however, accepted by all scholars, and a number of alternative explanations have been put forward. These include:

John Boardman's suggestion that the frieze depicts the Panathenaic procession elevated to an heroic plane in order to honour the 192 Athenian warriors killed by the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC [J. Boardman, "The Panathenaic Frieze - Another View" in U. Hockmann and A. Krug (eds.) Festschrift fur Frank Brommer (1977), 39-49].

Joan Connelly's proposal that the frieze has a mythological interpretation as the first commemorative procession in honour of the sacrifice of the daughters of Erechtheus prior to the battle against Eumolpos of Eleusis [J.B. Connelly, "Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze", AJA 100 (1996), 53-80].

Jerome Pollitt's hypothesis that the frieze celebrates the creation of the Athenian cavalry corps under Perikles and also underscores Periklean cultural ideology as expressed in contests, sacrificial rites and military training [J.J. Pollitt, "The Meaning of the Parthenon Frieze" in D. Buitron-Oliver, (ed.) The Interpretation of Architectural Sculpture in Greece and Rome (1997), 51-65].

For further suggestions, see also:

E. Harrison, "The Web of History: A Conservative Reading of the Parthenon Frieze" in J. Neils, (ed.) Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon (1996), 198-214.

C. Kardara, "Glaukopis, the Archaic Naos and the Theme of the Parthenon Frieze", Archaiologike Ephemeris 1961, 61-158.

Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite from the east pediment of the Parthenon, max. height: 1.73m. London, British Museum.

Though the pediments of the Parthenon are badly damaged, particularly so the west, we do know the subjects depicted: on the west side the fight between Athena and Poseidon for sovereignty over the land of Attica, and on the east side the birth of Athena. The over-life size figures were sculpted in the round between 437-432 BC. Here we see Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite as part of the divine retinue witnessing the birth of Athena in the east pediment: the rich, fine draperies are sensuously moulded over the female forms.

Dionysos or Herakles from the east pediment of the Parthenon, max. height: 1.21m. London, British Museum.

The figure of Dionysos or Herakles, reclining on a feline skin, epitomises the late fifth century ideal male form, its well-muscled elements combining to represent an athletic unified whole.

Horse from Selene's chariot, east pediment of the Parthenon. London, British Museum.

The triangular corners of the east pediment were filled on one side with Helios (the sun) and his horses rising to bring day, and on the other side with Selene (the moon) and her horses sinking as night fades. Note in the expressive head of Selene's horse the bulging veins and flared nostrils, indicating the animal's exhaustion after a night of running the heavens.