Lecture 9: An introduction to Athenian sculpture in the sixth and fifth centuries BC: status, function, materials and colour

In order to understand Athenian sculpture in the context in which it was created we must approach the subject from a number of different perspectives - form, style, function, materials and technique. We also need to explore the identities and status of the sculptors, and to examine which groups in society provided the clientele commissioning the sculpture.

FUNCTION (Note that the various categories of sculpture listed below are not necessarily mutually excusive)

Sacred Sculpture - used for representing the gods as cult images or for creating votive dedications.

The so-called Varvakeion Athena: a second century AD stone copy in miniature of the colossal fifth century BC chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos by Pheidias which stood in the Parthenon at Athens. Athens National Archaeological Museum.

Votive relief of victorious athlete crowning himself. Found near the Temple of Athena at Sounion. Circa 460-450 BC. Athens National Archaeological Museum.

Note that while freestanding sculpture figures were employed as cult statues, votive sculptures included both freestanding and relief sculpted monuments.

Commemorative Sculpture

Roman marble copy of the Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) created originally in bronze by the sculptor Myron circa 450 BC. Museo Nazionale delle Terme, Rome.

Victory monuments, both freestanding and relief, could be erected to celebrate either victories in athletic competition (as above) or military victories.

The Tyrannicides, Roman marble copy in Naples National Museum of a lost bronze original of 477/6 BC  by Kritios and Nesiotes.

The Tyrannicides statue commemorated an important historical event, the slaying in 514 BC of the tyrant Hipparchos by Harmodios and Aristogeiton.

Grave stele of Hegeso from the Kerameikos Cemetery, circa 400 BC.  Athens National Archaeological Museum.

During the sixth and fifth centuries at Athens, both freestanding and relief sculpted monuments were erected over tombs to commemorate deceased individuals.

"Decorative" Sculpture

Decorative architectural sculpture, both freestanding and relief, was used to adorn temples, treasuries and important secular civic buildings. Statue bases were often also decorated with figures sculpted in relief. Usually, however, its function was not only decorative but also votive and/or commemorative.

East front of the Temple of Athena Parthenos on the Acropolis at Athens, 447-432 BC. Sculpted relief decorates the square metopes in the Doric frieze above the external colonnade, while freestanding figures fill the triangular pediment.

Relief friezes depicting athletes exercising from an Archaic kouros statue base of circa 500 BC in the Kerameikos.  Athens National Archaeological Museum.

It is important to note that in sixth and fifth century Athens, sculpture was not produced for private enjoyment in the domestic context. This development is seen rather later, in the Hellenistic period.

MATERIALS

Wood. Wooden statues do not survive, but we know from the ancient literary sources that some of the oldest and most venerated cult statues were made of wood, such as the statue of Athena Polias which stood in the Old Temple of Athena, later replaced by the Erechtheion, on the Acropolis.

Terracotta.

Terracotta statue of Zeus abducting Ganymede from the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia, circa 470 BC. Olympia Archaeological Museum.

Terracotta was frequently employed as the medium for akroterion figures, which crowed the apex and corners of the pediments of temples and treasuries.

Stone. Preferably marble, but sometimes limestone.

Bronze.

Hollow-cast bronze statue of Zeus or Poseidon, found in the sea off Cape Artemision on Euboia. Circa 460 BC. Athens National Archaeological Museum.

Chryselephantine.

Chryselephantine head of Apollo from Delphi, sixth century BC. Delphi Archaeological Museum. Here the ivory, originally white, has been blackened by fire.

In the chryselephantine technique, gold and ivory were laid over a wooden core to create statues of extraordinary richness. The technique was usually reserved for cult statues, such as that of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens.

COLOUR

Peplos kore from the Acropolis at Athens, complete with restored colour. Circa 530 BC.

Though almost all added colour has now disappeared from extant Greek stone and terracotta sculpture, we must remember that when new it was painted with bright pigments. Metal accessories, such as jewellery, wreaths or weapons, were also often added to the sculptures, both freestanding and relief. Additionally for relief sculpture, the background from which the relief figures were carved was usually painted red or blue. The encaustic technique of painting was employed, in which the pigments were mixed with molten wax before applying them to the stone or terracotta.

Bronze statues, mean while, were kept shiny like gold: lips and nipples were inlaid with copper or silver, and eyes were filled with glass paste and/or semi-precious stones.

ANCIENT STATUS OF SCULPTURE AND SCULPTORS

Whereas vase-painting was considered a craft, sculpture was considered to be a major art form and the greatest sculptors of the Classical period, such as Pheidias, Myron and Polykleitos, were much sought after throughout Greece. This is not, of course, to say that many lesser and now anonymous sculptors did not ply their craft on countless lesser commissions for far more meagre financial recompense. 

For the absolute chronology of sculptures monuments in the sixth and fifth centuries see Lecture 2: Problems of Chronology.