Interpretive Essays

Essays about the events that lead up to and including the Louisiana Purchase

1. A History of Colonial and International Relations in Louisiana, 1762-1801.
2. The Lead-Up to the Louisiana Purchase, 1802-3.
3. What was Louisiana Like After the Purchase?

A History of Colonial and International Relations in Louisiana, 1762-1801

Louisisana has been a focal point for many significant colonial and international relations, and not merely because of its size (Louisiana, but not the area known as a state today, comprised 'about a million square miles, or one third of the continental United States'). ¹ Louisiana was important because of its central location in the continent and its proximity, via the Mississippi, to the colonies of imperial powers and, as such, it was a vital location for trade. Being such an important site, it is no wonder that many imperial powers vied for access to, influence in and ownership of the Louisiana territory.

This history of Louisiana as a site for colonial and international relations begins in 1762, when France ceded Louisiana to Spain as part of the secret Treaty of Tontainebleau. David J. Weber suggests that 'France was eager to get rid of Louisiana' as a result of the numerous losses she had incurred during the Seven Years' War and as a way of fulfilling her promise to Spain from before the war. ² The Treaty of Paris, 1763, ended the Seven Years' War and terms were such that 'France surrendered to Great Britain the remainder of Louisiana to the east of the Mississippi and all of Canada. In the same treaty, England also acquired Florida from Spain.' ³ As such, 'Spain gained complete control over the mouth of the Mississippi.' ⁴

The Preliminary Treaty of Peace between Spain and Great Britain (January 20, 1783), [read Article 3 in Hunter Miller's Notes] formed yet another site of transfer of Louisiana territory. Britain ceded to Spain East Florida and kept the West for themselves. Article 5 of the Definitive Treaty of Peace (September 3, 1783) [read Article 5 in Hunter Miller's Notes] emphasized this, and also ensured all British citizens and property had free movement to emigrate.

The Nootka Sound affair of 1789 developed when 'both the Spanish and British governments planned to take effective and exclusive occupation' of the area. ⁵ Jefferson firmly believed 'that in order to protect America[n] neutrality in a future wart between England and Spain, and to secure an outlet for the West, the whole bank of the Mississippi must become American territory.' ⁶ Also if Louisiana was captured by British forces, as the British had proposed to do by raveling overland from Canada to capture New Orleans, the US would be hemmed in on all sides and would be no match to British power. ⁷ Indeed, Jefferson suggested to 'disgruntled westerners' that it might be wise to bide time in America making a move on the Louisiana territory, advising that 'Those, therefore, who have influence in the new country would act wisely to endeavour to keep things quiet till the Western parts of Europe shall be engaged in war.' ⁸ 'Instead of seeking an alliance with Spain against the common threat, he [Jefferson] proposed to guarantee her claims west of the Mississippi, which Great Britain might otherwise gain by conquest, in return for cession of New Orleans and West Florida.' ⁹ When this proved unfeasible, America offered to negotiate settlement between Spain and Great Britain - Spain consented to negotiation over navigation rights of the US in the Mississippi but Britain flatly refused. ¹⁰

It was not until that Britain agreed to negotiate with the US and these negotiations were settled in the Treaty of London, 19 November, 1794. Also known as Jay's Treaty, after negotiator Chief Justice Jay, the agreement stipulated that Britain would evacuate fortifications in the Northwest. 'In return, [America] had to admit to British fur-trading over the northern border.' ^{[i.e. into Canada] 11} As such, 'Jay's Treaty was a restatement of Anglo-American solidarity, a renewed declaration of mutual interest in the [Mississippi] valley and forced Spain to throw open the port of New Orleans to American trade, thereby contributing to American strength in the valley.' ¹² Joint agreements between England and Spain were made in March 1795. 'England reserved its right to trade along the coast, Spain surrendered its exclusive claim for the region [i.e. the Nootka Sound], and both sides agreed to leave unresolved the question of California's northern border.' ¹³

To this end, the next set of negotiations over the use of the Mississippi and colonial borders took place between the US and France, culminating in the Treaty of San Lorenzo del Escorial on the 27th of October, 1795. Also known as Pickney's Treaty, after US negotiator Thomas Pickney, the treaty stipulated that France 'accordingly granted the right to navigate the lower Mississippi, as well as the "right of deposit" [enabling the US to dock ships and leave goods at port for reshipment] at New Orleans so ardently desired by the West; and recognized the thirty-first parallel to the Chattahootchee as the southern border of the US' ¹⁴ - that is, the northern most border of West Florida. ¹⁵ It was not, however, until 1798, after exhausting all its rich resources in procrastination, that the Spanish government evacuated the posts it held north of that line. So that, in all, fifteen years elapsed before the US obtained control of their own territories from European powers.' ¹⁶

When the French heard about the resolutions of the Treaty of London, they became increasingly worried about the growth of US influence on the continent. The French 'Directory sought to cover both flanks of the US with French territory and push back their boundaries.' ¹⁷ Furthermore, 'Pressure was brought to bear on the Spanish court to cede the Floridas and Louisiana to France. Victor Collot, who went on a secret mission for the Directory to the Western country, stated the argument neatly:
"France must acquire Louisiana and the Floridas by negotiation, and Canada by force, as the only means to contain the US within peaceful bounds, to break their exclusive relations with England, to preserve our colonies exclusively to ourselves by feeding them with the products of our own soil, and, finally, to recover both the hemispheres that preponderance to which nature entitles us."' ¹⁸

Further negotiations between imperial powers in the colonies, this time between France and Spain, again focussed on Louisiana. After the Treaty of Mortefontaine, September 30, 1800, which 'concluded the quasi state of war' that had existed between France and Spain until that point, the two were free to negotiate on friendly terms. 19 Note, also, that on the same day, France signed the Convention of 1800 with the US, guaranteeing the two countries' 'friendship' and that they would act fairly in trade. They also made the provision that they would allow a six month period to allow migration of each other's peoples in case they were to ever engage in war with one another. [read the Convention of 1800 here]

In the Treaty of San Ildefonso, '1 October 1800, France secretly obtained the retrocession of Louisiana from Spain.' ²⁰ For Spain, the retrocession was born out of necessity. The colony had been unfrutiful for Spain and even though she had been in possession of Louisiana from 1763, by 1800 'Less than 1 percent of its area was settled.' ²¹ Furthermore, E. E. Lyon notes that 'Although [Louisiana's] inhabitants were prosperous, the transfer to France freed the Spanish treasury of an annual deficit of $337,000. As Charles IV viewed it, the cost of policing Spain's American frontier was now to be borne by the French.] ²² These concerns with the colony's future prosperity and security manifested themselves in 1795 when Spain had offered Louisiana to France in return 'for the eastern half of Santo Domingo but France had refused.' ²³ By 1800, Spain's position in Louisiana was becoming increasingly precarious. 'Anxious to keep America at arm's length from New Spain, Spain had also stipulated in the agreement at San Ildefonso that France not relinquish Louisiana to a third party.' ²⁴ This fear seems to have been placated by Gouvion St Cyr, the French Ambassador to Madrid, who reassured Spanish officials by reporting that "I am authorized to declare to you in the name of the First Consul [Napoleon] that France will never alienate it [Louisiana]." ²⁵

Negotiations between France and Spain leading up to the Treaty of San Ildefonso were largely more forceful on the French side. Napoleon put a great deal of pressure on Carlos IV to surrender both Louisiana and the Floridas in return for a throne in central Italy. For France, 'The great river valley was to fill a twofold purpose. It was valuable as a barrier of unlimited possibility against the American, and for its proximity to the French West Indies.' ²⁶ Although France missed out on acquiring the Floridas from Spain, the transaction was completed with France's acquisition of Tuscany from Austria (in Article 5 of the Treaty of Luneville, February 10, 1801) and 'By the Convention of Aranjuez, signed March 21, 1801, France received Louisiana and Elbe in return for the seating of Prince Louis on the throne of the newly created kingdom of Etruria, which included Tuscany and Piombino.' ²⁷

Read more about the Lead-Up to the Louisiana Purchase.